Ch 05 - Organizing and Paying for American Education

Case Study: Magnet Schools (Lauren M)

Push is on for Magnet School at Jefferson to Attract Students
By Sherry Saavedra

• Jefferson Elementary is turned into a magnet school; called the 'school of choice'.
  • Features an IB program (typically reserved for high schools; only four IB elementary schools.)
  • Lessons in foreign languages start in Kindergarten
  • Offers full day Kindergarten, caps class sizes at 20
  • "Part of the implementation involves teacher training on how to help students think critically, ask questions and be compassionate" (Johnson 140)
    • Students do community service and develop a worldwide perspective on human hardships.
    • Teachers teach students to think outside the box; getting zero from India.
    • Expanding traditional lessons.
  • The goal of having certain schools as 'magnet schools' is to lesson the enrollment at other, overpopulated schools.
    • Ex: Aviara Oaks (meant for 675, serving 930)
    • Ex: Calvera Hills (meant for 490, serving 615)

I. The Structure of the American Education System (Kristin)

• Horizontal policy-to-practice continuum
  • range of roles and responsibilities for education from the development of national policy to teaching in classrooms
• For education to improve agencies and people to each point along the continuum have to do their job well
• Teachers must develop an understanding of the functions and purpose of other parts of the education system
  • must be aware of issues and things outside of classroom
• Keep in mind differences between line and staff relationships
  • Line relationship: subordinate is directly responsible to a supervisor
  • Staff relationship: one party is not under the direct control or authority of another

A. The Organization of Schools (Lauren T)

• The school is the basic building block of U.S. education system (Same elements throughout many states/countries)
  • Set of classrooms, corridors, central office, area for Gymnasium/Cafeteria, etc.
• Criticized for looking like an egg crate series of cells
  • with routes running between feel that it restricts communication/channel flow of student traffic
• Even when school's architecture is changed to open floor plan, room still arranged in standard classroom set up
  • One of large problems is how to control noise
• Many organizational/instructional implications based on the physical arrangement:
  • Easy to be isolated in classroom environment

B. School-Based Personnel(Carrie)

C. Organization of the School District (Virginia)

• A school district is governed by a school board
• Local Board of Education
  • Legal authority for running local school systems is granted to school boards through state law.
  • States make laws to determine how school board officials are selected, the terms they have, duties of officers, etc.
  • Most school boards in the US are elected by popular vote in elections, some are appointed by the mayor.
  • Powers and Duties of School Boards:
    • Major job for school board is to develop policies for the local school district, which is in sync with state and federal laws.
    • Boards usually only have the following powers which are granted by law to carry out their responsibilities, some of which are mandatory and some are discretionary:
      • Obtain revenue
      • Maintain schools
      • Purchase sites and build buildings
      • Purchase materials and supplies
      • Organize and provide programs of study
      • Employ necessary workers and regulate their services
      • Admit and assign students to schools and control their conduct
• Superintendent of Schools:
  • Usually selected by the school board, but sometimes elected by the voters (usually in the southeast)
  • Main duty is to handle the day-to-day operations of the school district.
  • Planning district’s budget, defining the district’s long-term goals
  • Expected to be visible in the community and to provide leadership for the district
• The Critical Importance of Leadership:
  • The quality of the educational program hinges mainly on the leadership that the superintendent and school board provides.
• Central Office Staff:
  • Superintendent has several assistant superintendents to help with different programs of education.
  • Under these assistant superintendents are the principals, curriculum directors, and other such personnel with power over the people below them.
  • Much of the staff does not have administrative authority over the teachers, but the teachers do not have authority over anyone but the students.

D. Organization of Education at the State Level (Shaina)

• The U.S. Constitution does not provide public education, this power is granted to the states
  • local state districts receive through state law their empowerment to operate school systems
• state legislatures are the chief policymakers for education
  • grant power to board of ed, local boards of ed, etc
• Other individuals and groups can influence education

E. State Board of Education (Chris)

• Both regualtory and advisory
  • Regulatory - establishment of standards for schools and teachers
  • Advisory - recommendations the board makes to the governor to improve the school both long term and short term.
• Members are either appointed by the governer or elected
  • Usually unpaid positions
• Chief School Officer/ Commissioner of Education
  • Either appointed or elected also
  • Many oppose the election process because they don't like the political side of it
• State Department of Education
  • Carries out activities designated by the Chief School Officer
  • Five catagories of tasks
    • operational
      • ex) schools for the blind
    • regulatory
      • ex) teachers licences
    • service
      • ex) advising and consulting
    • developmental
      • self improvement of the department
    • public support
      • ex) public relations
• State Legislature
  • creating, operating, managing and maintaining school systems
  • state policy makers
  • make decisions about
    • how education is organized
    • rights of teachers
    • financing
    • standards of safety
    • attendance laws
  • commonly have 1,000 bills of legislation every year

F. The Federal Government's Role In Education (Iain)

• under the 10th amendment, education is a function of the state
  • local units called school districts
• introduction of No Child Left Behind Act accelerated government involvement in schools (federalism)
• the federal government has historically provided leadership in education in specific situations, usually in times of need or in crises that could not be fully addressed by the leadership in states or local districts
  • Example, A Nation at Risk which was published in 1983 prepared by the National Commission in Education
• The U.S. Department of education was established in 1867 by Henry Barnard.

G. Other Types of Education Agencies (Makayla)

Intermediate Units

• Intermediate units can consist of one or more counties and function between the state department of education and the local school districts.
• They have different names depending on the state: Ex. in New York and Colorado, they are called BOCES (Boards of Cooperative Educational Services); in Texas, are called Regional Service Centers; and in California, they are called County Education Offices.
• The functions of these intermediate units are to provide two of more districts with services they cannot offer by themselves because of efficiency and economic problems. They also cooperate with special education and vocational-technical education.
• Services they provide can include: audiovisual libraries, centralized purchasing, inservice training for school workers such as teachers and principles, health services, instructional materials, laboratories, legal services, and special consultant services.
• The inservice training has grown in recent years because of economic reform.

H. School Choice: Increasing Options along with Uncertain Outcomes (Emma)

• In the past students simply attended the school they were assigned to by district. Now various alternatives to the traditional public school are emerging.
• The alternative schools promote competition, which many believe leads to efficiency and effectiveness.

1. Magnet Schools - Each magnet school has its own certain theme. For example, the school may emphasis performing and visual arts, or liberal arts.

• elementary, middle, and high schools
• Supposed to attract all different kinds of students; originally created to equalize the proportions of different racial groups in each school.

2. Charter Schools - Supported by public funds.

• Exist through a contract with the state agency or local school board.
• Establishing charter/contract on how school will operate in exchange for public funding.
• Tend to have significantly smaller enrollments than public schools.

3. Year-round School - Students attend school year round, but the actual amount of time in school is not extended.

• Schools might have "tracks" of 6 to 8 weeks. At every cycle, one fourth or one third of students will be on vacation, while the remainder of students attend school.
• School can handle more students on an annual basis.

4. Vouchers - Voucher program issues a check/credit that can be used towards a private school education.

• Most vouchers are funded with state tax dollars.
• Has certain restrictions for who is eligible.
• The amount of money is usually equal to the amount the public school received for each student (probably about four to five thousand dollars).

5. Private, Parochial, and Independent Schools - Outside public school system.

• A. Independent Schools (private schools) - a nonprofit institution governed by a board of trustees that depends almost entirely on private funds (tuition, gifts, grants) for its financial support.
  • Must meet state and local health and safety standards and attendance laws.
  • Vary in organization, population, purpose.
• B. Governance of Independent Schools - Each school is a nonprofit, tax-exempt corporation.
  • Governed by a board of trustees to bears responsibility of school's resources and finances.

6. Home Schooling - Student is taught by parent.

• Accounts for 1.1 million students K-12th grade.
• Subjects taught a self-determined which can account for a gap in education, but can also be a benefit since students are able to learn about subjects that are particularly interesting to them.

I. Politics In Education (Allie)

• SCHOOL BOARD POLITICS
  • Most school districts have "at-large" elections to select board members which means every voter in a community can vote for each seat
  • The alternative is to have representatives from each district
  • Either way there will be strong interest in putting someone on the board who will stand for his/her interests
• SUPERINTENDENT POLITICS
  • -As chief executive, must listen to all opinions of the board and maintain a majority of the board's support
  • -Also must work with the community, teachers, and principals
• SCHOOL POLITICS
  • -Teachers are often forced to be involved in politics
    • parents want certain teachers, teachers will lobby principal for preferred teaching assignment
• CLASSROOM POLITICS
  • -Even politics in classes
    • when students approach the teacher to request clarification about a certain assignment, or to have a test rescheduled
• POLITICS:NEITHER POSITIVE NOR NEGATIVE
  • -Politics are the way that organizations work because disagreements will always exist
  • -Skillful negotiators are able to make a decision so the organization can move ahead
  • -Teachers who don't contribute to politics guarantee their positions and ideas will not be considered
• ISSUE: LOCAL CONTROL VS. FEDERALISM
  • -Local Control is "the belief that educational decisions should be made at the local level rather than at the state or national level"
    • rationale: local people know what's best for the students in their community
  • -No Child Left Behind Act is the latest move toward federalism
    • supporters say education is a responsibility of all society
    • say national survival requires centralized policies and programs
    • -the questions are more about power, authority, and who gets to decide

II. Financing Education: Sources of Funds and the Move from Equity to Adequacy

A. A System of Taxation and Support For Schools (Hannah)

• Three kinds of taxes that help fund schools - property taxes (local level), sales or use taxes (state and local level), and income taxes (state and federal level)
• Percent Distributions of Revenue for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools (2002 - 2003)
  • State = 48.7%
  • Local and Intermediate = 42.8%
  • Federal = 8.5%
• Property Taxes and Local Revenue
  • Property tax: a tax based on the value of property, both real estate and personal
  • Primary source of local school revenue
  • Property Taxes: Advantages and Limitations
    • Stable
    • Fixed
    • Discourages people to renovate and make improvements to their houses because the value will go up and thus their taxes will go up
  • Determining the Value of Property
    • Inconsistent property assessments are common
    • Some assessors have no special training
    • Assessors are influenced by political and informal pressures
  • Property Tax: Progressive or Regressive
    • Progressive tax: a tax that is scaled to the ability of the taxpayer
    • Regressive tax: a tax that affects low-income groups disproportionately
    • Property tax is considered progressive but sometimes it is regressive because of inconsistent assessments
  • Inequities of the Property Tax
    • Causes major gap between rich education and poor education
  • The Perspective of the Courts on Taxation and Education
    • Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment - prohibits state action that would deny citizens equal protection
    • "The method of financing public schools ... can be fairly described as chaotic and unjust."
• State Sources of Revenue and Aid
  • State aid: the money that states provide for the fiscal resources of local schools
  • Four groups of tax revenue for states:
    • Sales and gross receipt taxes
    • Income taxes
    • Licenses
    • Miscellaneous
  • Sales and Income Taxes
    • Sales tax is collected bit by bit; regressive because it effects rich and poor in the same way (same rate for both)
    • Income taxes are progressive because they are scaled to what the taxpayer can pay
  • Gambling: An Increasing Source of Revenue
    • Not a direct tax on citizens
    • Commercial casinos paid $4.9 billion in taxes in 2004
• Recent Challenges to School Finance Within the States
  • The State Perspective on Taxation and Education
    • Some state supreme courts say that education is not a fundamental right; as long as there is some minimal education, the equal protection clause is met
  • States' Responsibility to Guarantee Equal Educational Opportunity
    • Montana - establish an educational system that will develop the full educational potential of each person
    • Kentucky - schools must be adequately funded to achieve its goals (KERA - Kentucky Education Reform Act)
• Entrepreneurial Efforts to Fund Education
  • Advertising: A New Source of Revenue
    • Some schools raise money by having companies by advertising space on buses
  • More Student Fees
    • Fees for non-core subjects and extracurriculars
    • Student parking
    • Athletic programs
  • More Fund-Raising Schemes
    • Bake sales and parent booster groups
  • Questions about Fund-Raising Efforts
    • Equity is an important issue
    • Children being exposed to advertising in schools - too influential for the children - hgardner90 Oct 15, 2009

B. Education Spending (Sasha)

• Education funds are distribute to schools and school districts after being collected at the local, state, and federal levels
  • Most decisions about the distribution of funds are determined by each school district as opposed to the state and federal gov'ts
  • The greatest amount of expenditures (6.13%) comes from instruction/teacher salaries
  • For the 2002-03 school year, the nation average per pupil was $8,041, yet they range from $4,838 in Utah to $12,568 in NJ
• State aid for education
  • - State is primarily responsible for education
  • - general aid is used by recipient school districts
  • - categorical aid is for specific uses
  • -children with disabilities
  • -given to encourage specific education programs
  • -for every dollar of local effort, the state gives a certain amount of money
  • -categorical aid has definitely contributed to the addition of needed educational programs
  • General State Aid:
    • - based on principle that every child should be allowed to receive a basic education regardless of wealth
    • - equal opportunity
    • - provided through foundation program
    • - Poorer areas typically receive more state aid as taxes are taken more from wealthier communities
    • - A limitation of general state aid is that some programs don't provide for different expenditure levels due to individual needs
    • -special education per-pupil requires more money than the usual expenditure per student for a typical elementary school
• Federal Aid
  • - started before the U.S. Constitution was adopted, due to the Northwest Ordinance of 1785
  • - Almost 200 federal aid-to-education laws passed since

C. Accountability (Lauren M)

*

III. Summary (Samantha)

• The Structure of the American Education System
  • - historically, the US constitution does not address education so the primary responsibility and authority was put ont he states
  • -in the past 60 years the government has become more involved
  • -No Child Left Behind statute is a example of increasing federalism
  • -line of authority extends as follows: teacher>principal>superintendent>state>federal government
• Financing Education: Sources of Funds and the Move from Equity to Adequacy
  • -funding is mainly from various taxes collected in local, state, and federal levels
  • -48.7% of funding comes from state
  • -61.3% of expenditures support instruction
  • -challenge is to collect sufficient funds to support the schools and teachers and not cause taxpayer revolt
  • -most states turned to lotteries and other indirect taxation
  • -property tax is main source of funding - swagner228 Oct 18, 2009